Measuring Earthquake Intensities Using Seismic Scales

The first measuring tool invented for earthquakes was the seismic intensity scale. This is a rough numerical scale to describe how severe an earthquake is in the place where youre standing—how bad it is on a scale of 1 to 10. Its not hard to come up with a set of descriptions for intensity 1 (I could barely feel it) and 10 (Everything around me fell down!) and the gradations in between. A scale of this kind, when its carefully made and consistently applied, is useful even though its based entirely on descriptions, not measurements. Scales of earthquake magnitude (the total energy of a quake) came later, the result of many advances in seismometers and decades of data collection. While seismic magnitude is interesting, seismic intensity is more important: its about the strong motions that actually affect people and buildings. Intensity maps are prized for practical things like city planning, building codes, and emergency response. To Mercalli and Beyond Dozens of seismic intensity scales have been devised. The first to be widely used was made by Michele de Rossi and Francois Forel in 1883, and before seismographs were widespread the Rossi-Forel scale was the best scientific tool we had. It used roman numerals, from intensity I to X. In Japan, Fusakichi Omori developed a scale based on the types of structures there, such as stone lanterns and Buddhist temples. The seven-point Omori scale still underlies the Japanese Meteorological Agencys official seismic intensity scale. Other scales came into use in many other countries. In Italy, a 10-point intensity scale developed in 1902 by Giuseppe Mercalli was adapted by a succession of people. When H. O. Wood and Frank Neumann translated one version into English in 1931, they called it the Modified Mercalli scale. That has been the American standard ever since. The Modified Mercalli scale consists of descriptions that range from the innocuous (I. Not felt except by a very few) to the terrifying (XII. Damage total . . . Objects thrown upward into the air). It includes the behavior of people, the responses of houses and larger buildings, and natural phenomena. For instance, peoples responses range from barely feeling ground motion at intensity I to everyone running outdoors at intensity VII, the same intensity at which chimneys begin to break. At intensity VIII, sand and mud are ejected from the ground and heavy furniture overturns. Mapping Seismic Intensity Turning human reports into consistent maps happen online today, but it used to be quite laborious. During the aftermath of a quake, scientists collected intensity reports as fast as they could. Postmasters in the United States sent the government a report every time a quake struck. Private citizens and local geologists did the same. If youre into earthquake preparedness, consider learning more about what quake investigators do by downloading their official field manual. With these reports in hand, investigators of the U.S. Geological Survey then interviewed other expert witnesses, such as building engineers and inspectors, to help them map zones of equivalent intensity. Eventually, a contour map showing the intensity zones was finalized and published. An intensity map can show some useful things. It can delineate the fault that caused the quake. It can also show areas of unusually strong shaking far from the fault. These areas of bad ground are important when it comes to zoning, for instance, or disaster planning or deciding where to route freeways and other infrastructure. Advances In 1992, a European committee set out to refine the seismic intensity scale in the light of new knowledge. In particular, we have learned a great deal about how different kinds of buildings respond to shaking—in effect, we can treat them like amateur seismographs. In 1995 the European Macroseismic Scale (EMS) was widely adopted across Europe. It has 12 points, the same as the Mercalli scale, but it is much more detailed and precise. It includes many pictures of damaged buildings, for instance. Another advance was being able to assign harder numbers to intensities. The EMS includes specific values of ground acceleration for each intensity rank. (So does the latest Japanese scale.) The new scale cannot be taught in a single lab exercise, the way the Mercalli scale is taught in the United States. But those who master it will be the best in the world at extracting good data from the rubble and confusion of an earthquakes aftermath. Why Old Research Methods Are Still Important The study of earthquakes gets more sophisticated every year, and thanks to these advances the oldest research methods work better than ever. The nice machines and clean data make for good fundamental science. But one great practical benefit is that we can calibrate all kinds of earthquake damages against the seismograph. Now we can extract good data from human records where—and when—there are no seismometers. Intensities can be estimated for earthquakes all the way through history, using old records like diaries and newspapers. Earth is a slow-moving place, and in many places the typical earthquake cycle takes centuries. We dont have centuries to wait, so deriving reliable information about the past is a valuable task. Ancient human records are much better than nothing, and sometimes what we learn about past seismic events is almost as good as having seismographs there.

The Aicpa Code Of Professional Conduct - 1268 Words

The introduction to the old AICPA Code of Professional Conduct of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants provides guidance and rules for all members as it explains the composition of the code, application of standards and compliance enforcement procedures. The code consists of two sections principles and rules. The Principles provide a general framework for the Rules which CPAs have to adhere to the rules of the AICPA Code when practicing. The AICPA Code of Conduct consists of three levels: Principles of professional of conduct, Rules and interpretations and rulings. If a member violates the Code rules, disciplinary actions would be taken. The Principles of Professional Conduct (Sec 50) explains the responsibilities, public interest, integrity, objectivity and independence, due care and scope and nature of services for professional accountants. The rules of the AICPA Code are (Sec 90) Applicability and Definitions, (Sec 100) Independence, Integrity and Objectivity, (S ec 200) General Standards and accounting principles, (Sec 300) Responsibilities to clients, (sec 400) Responsibilities to colleagues and (sec 500) Other responsibilities. Section 50 - Principles of Professional Conduct consists of 6 articles: Responsibilities, The Public Interest, Integrity, Objectivity and Independence, Due Care and Scope and Nature of Service. The ACIPA sets higher ethical principles and rules that CPAs who voluntary become a member in it, are obligated to abide and adhere. TheShow MoreRelatedAicpa Code Of Professional Conduct Essay1096 Words   |  5 Pagesthat contributes to the country’s economy. Introduction of AICPA Code of Professional Conduct helps in controlling the business operation especially in the accounting and management departments. 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Understand own Role and Responsibilities in Lifelong Learning Free Essays

There are many legislation requirements within the Further Education Sector. As a summary of the legislation requirements, some of those that are essential are Every Child Matters, The Equality Act 2010 and Safe Guarding Vulnerable Groups. Every Child Matters is a legislation requirement which was introduced in 2003 in response to the death of Victoria Climbie, who was murdered by her carers. We will write a custom essay sample on Understand own Role and Responsibilities in Lifelong Learning or any similar topic only for you Order Now An inquiry was launched by Lord Lamming to improve child protection issues and there are now five outcomes of which education establishments must ensure are achieved. They are that pupils are being healthy, staying Safe, enjoying and achieving, making a positive contribution and achieving social and economic well being. The Equality Act 2010 is an act which legally protects people from discrimination. It sets out ways in which it is unlawful to discriminate others. It has replaced previous discrimination laws by including them all in one act, making them easier to understand. Safe Guarding Vulnerable Groups Act 2006 is an act which relates to the protection of children and vulnerable adults. The Act was brought about after an inquiry was made chaired by Sir Michael Bichard, relating to the Soham murders. Listed in the table below are a few other legislation requirements of which staff within the FE Sector should work towards: An overall summary of why codes of practice and legislation requirements are important within my role in the further education sector is that they help prevent any harm to people and secure a safe learning environment. L0 – 1.3 – EVALUATING RESPONSIBILITIES WITHIN THE FE SECTOR Whilst working in my role within the further education sector as a Music Tutor, there are many responsibilities that need to be maintained to ensure a safe and sufficient learning environment. They are as follows: INCLUSION: Inclusion is essential and it is important that I take individual students’ needs into account. For example some of my students are disabled so I have to plan lessons accordingly so that they are inclusive of everyone, whilst working towards the required criteria/curriculum. PROMOTE EQUALITY AND DIVERSITY: It is important that within my role I give every student a chance of success. In order to do this it is my responsibility to ensure everyone is treated equally and fairly. There are students from many different backgrounds in my teaching establishment so I must take this into account by adapting various things where necessary to suit the needs of their religion/beliefs or other requirements. SAFEGUARDING: It is my responsibility as a Music Tutor in the Further Education Sector to ensure students are safe within the learning environment by abiding by codes of practice and legislation requirements such as Every Child Matters. If I felt a student was at risk it would be my responsibility to take necessary action such as reporting it to relevant people. Exceptions would also be made regarding confidentiality if I felt the student or others were at risk. PREPARATION: Lessons should be planned accordingly to suit the requirements of every student whilst ensuring any objectives and learning outcomes are met. In my role in particular there are students with many different requirements. Some are visually impaired and have various disabilities so it is my responsibility to ensure that lessons are tailored in order for them to achieve what is required. LO – 1.3 – EVALUATING ROLES WITHIN THE FURTHER EDUCATION SECTOR With regards to roles within the Further Education Sector, I have recently learnt that there are many roles required of an FE Tutor/Lecturer. For example my current teaching placement involves roles other than teaching, such as: ASSESSING: Assessing is an important part of my role as it ensures that lessons are planned accordingly to the needs of others. It also lets me know where students are with regards to achieving learning outcomes. AMINISTRATIVE ROLES: Administrative duties are an important contribution to my role as organised records of information have to be maintained. Administrative duties also help with the preparation of lessons, such as creating slides or presentations. PERSONAL TUTOR: As well as teaching within a group setting, my current teaching placement also requires me to engage in one to one tutoring. These tutorials are important as they give students a chance to address any questions or difficulties they may be having and also helps me  assess where students need to improve and how they develop musically. Listed below are a few more roles required of an FE Lecturer: To conclude my evaluation of roles and responsibilities within the Further Education Sector, my opinion is that there are a broad number of roles entailed in teaching and it is important that teachers are aware of the skills required to ensure students receive a good education. I believe teachers’ responsibilities of procedures such as legislation requirements and codes of practice are essential to ensuring students are safe and learn in a positive environment. How to cite Understand own Role and Responsibilities in Lifelong Learning, Papers